Now available from Readex: American Indian Wars, 1830-1898
American Indian Wars is an essential resource for both Native American history and American social history. It contains the records of the U.S. Army Continental Commands - deemed by the National Archives (NARA) as critical for the research and teaching of 19th-century Native American history. Included are detailed accounts of tribal negotiations, treaty drafts, transcripts of conversations with tribal chiefs, and much more.
As the United States pushed further west, the Army was at the forefront: prosecuting wars against Native American nations and Mexico, enforcing Native removal policy, and acting as a quasi-governing body before territorial bureaucracies were established, while also maintaining its own organization across large distances.
The military kept scrupulous records of their interactions with Native Americans, coordination of invasion operations, mediation between white settlers and Native Americans, and communication with regional and national command, creating an extensively detailed archive.
Predictably, wars and military actions occupied a great deal of the Army's time and energy, particularly against Native nations who were viewed as an existential threat to the United States. In a letter written in September of 1838, Major General Edmund Gaines wrote to the Secretary of War, J.R. Poinsett, about the possibility of an alliance between Mexico and the local Native groups:
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Records of Headquarters, 2nd Military Department; Unregistered Letters Received, Sept. 15, 1838 - Sept. 21, 1838
I have received from various sources information which appears to be confirmed by... Brig. Genl. Arbuckle Commanding the 2nd Department of this Division at Fort Gibson, that the favorite object which has for two years past occupied the attention of the Mexican Government, of organizing a Combination of the numerous tribes of Indians upon our Western frontier, ... is to some extent accomplished, with the avowed purpose of employing those Indians against the Republic of Texas, in the savage work of extirpating the foundations of civilization and free Government, which the intelligence and chivalry of the people of that infant Herculean Republic have just established; and in their place to give us for a neighbor, the Brigands, lawlessly employed in that unhallowed work of destruction!
If Mexican Officers shall have the audacity to array their Savage Allies against the inhabitants of Texas, upon our Western border; they will thereby create a power which they cannot control, a savage incendiary power, which must operate alike ruinously upon Citizens of the United States, and Citizens of Texas: Citizens of the same color, speaking the same language, occupied in similar pursuits, and separated only by an unmarked line which no human being of either civilized Nation interested in the matter can designate. How then can it be imagined that the untutored assailants themselves will find out, or attempt to find the precise boundary, at which the work of destruction of these infuriated savages, flushed and intoxicated with uninterrupted Success, will stop?
With these impressions Sir, it is my duty to assure the President of the United States, through You, that if hostilities shall have commenced, or should soon commence, as the accompanying documents indicate, nothing but extreme imbecility on the party of the Chieftains employed in that savage work can save the inhabitants of that part of the States of Louisiana and Arkansas, South and West of Red river...
While Gaines pressed Poinsett for more men, more supplies, and more ordnance to fend off the threat he feared, physical necessities were only half the problem. Intelligence and reconnaissance played an equally important role. Before and during the third Seminole War in Florida, the Army engaged in extensive reconnaissance, charting as much of the Florida landscape as they could, and making roads as they went. The maps and reports were in turn sent back to headquarters.
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Memoir of Reconnaissances during the Florida Campaign from Headquarters, Troops in Florida; Volume 1, April 13, 1854 - March 19, 1855
While Gaines' fears of an overwhelming force of Native soldiers did not materialize, the U.S. Army did not go unchallenged or undefeated in their campaigns of subjugation.
In early July 1876, telegrams began to fly out of the Division of the Missouri; the 7th Cavalry, led by General Custer, had been wiped out after a failed attack on a village near the Little Big Horn River in Montana Territory. After days of confusion, Brigadier General Alfred Terry telegrammed the Adjutant General of the Division in Minnesota to inform him:
The following just received – camp on Little Big Horn June twenty seventh – Custer with his whole regiment and forty scouts and guides attacked an immense Indian village on the twenty-fifth and was defeated – I have telegraphed Particulars to Division headquarters. The officers known to be killed are Genl Custer Captains Keogh Yates and Custer – Lieutenants Cook Smith McIntosh Calhoun Porter – Hodgson Sturgis and Reilly of the Cavalry Lieut of the Twentieth Infantry and acting asst surgeon Lord are missing – Captain Benteen and Lieutenant Varnum are wounded but so slightly they remain on duty – Mr. Boston Custer the brother and Mr. Reed the nephew of General Custer were killed – Please telegraph to the Commanding officers at Forts Lincoln and Rice to break the news to the families of the deceased officers and inform the Commanding officers at Fort Potter of the death of DeWolf – Please telegraph also to General Crittenden at Fort Abercrombie and to General Sturgis at St. Louis of the death of their sons – Inform Lieutenant Lord at Fort Snelling that his brother is missing – It is impossible as yet to determine the number of killed but it must reach two hundred and fifty officers and men. There are fifty one wounded. No other officers than those whom I have named were injured It has been impossible as yet to obtain a nominal list of the killed and wounded among the enlisted men. Ask Division Headquarters for a copy of my dispatch.
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"Special Files" of Headquarters, Division of the Missouri; Sioux War, Part 2, July 6, 1876 - Dec. 6, 1876
While wars against Native nations took up large portions of the Army's attention, the Mexican-American War required significant coordination between different branches of the military across uncertain territory, as shown in a letter from Secretary of the Navy John Mason to Commodore R.F. Stockton in 1846:
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Records of the 10th Military Department; Letters Received, May 12, 1846 - Dec. 22, 1846
The Secretary of War has ordered Col. R.B. Mason 1st U.S. Dragoons, to proceed to California via Panama, who will command the troops and conduct the military operations in the Mexican territory bordering on the Pacific, in the absence of Brig. General Kearney. The Commander of the Naval forces will consult and Cooperate with him in his command, to the same extent as is he held a higher rank in the Army. In all questions of relative rank, he is to be regarded as having only the rank of Colonel.
The President has deemed it best for the public interests to invest the Military Officer Commanding, with the direction of the operations on land, and with the administrative functions of Government over the people and territory occupied by us. You will relinquish to Col. Mason or Genl. Kearney... the entire control over these matters... If officers of the Navy are employed in the performance of Civil or Military duties, you will withdraw or continue them at your discretion, taking care to put them to their appropriate duty in the Squadron, if the Army Officer commanding does not wish their Services on land.
The United States also mobilized large shipments of materiel during the war, for the invasions of both Santa Fe and California. An ordnance report from July 1846 indicates the scale of the operations:
20 24 pound guns 20 24 pound Barbette Carriages with implements & equipments complete 4 8 inch Siege mortars 4 8 inch Siege Mortar beds with implements & equipments complete 4 6 pound Bronze guns 2 12 pound Howitzers 4 6 pound Carriages with implements and equipments complete 2 12 pound Hain &etc. with implements and equipments complete 2 6 pound Caissons 1 12 pound Caisson 1 field forge with tools & materials 1 Battery wagon with stores & tools 1 Sling Cart 1 Rampart gun with falls & blacks 4,000 muskets 1,000 pistols, 1,000 pistol cart. boxes & waist belts 200 Artillery swords & belts 4,000 sets of Infantry accoutrements 3,500 24 pound Shot 500 24 pound Canisters 2,000 8 inch Shells 325 Barrels Cannon powder 4,000 24 pound Cartridge bags 2,000 8 inch Mortar bags 1,800 Rounds of fixed ammunition for the field battery 80 barrels of Musket powder 8 barrels of Rifle powder 400,000 Musket Cartridges 100,000 Pistol Cartridges 400,000 Musket balls 100,000 Pistol balls 3530 pounds of buckshot 800 pounds No. 1 Laboratory paper 432 pounds of No. 2 Laboratory paper With the necessary materials and implements for making Cartridges 110 percussion muskets 110 sets infantry accoutrements 110 packets for Carrying perc. caps 22,000 percussion Musket Cartridges & a number of parts for repairs of percussion muskets
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Records of the 10th Military Department; Letters Received, May 12, 1846 - Dec. 22, 1846
The Army was also responsible for enforcing the Indian Removal Act signed in 1830, which mandated all Native groups east of the Mississippi River be relocated – either by negotiation or force – west of the river to "Indian Territory." In November of 1838, Colonel William Foster of the 4th Infantry wrote to Major General Winfield Scott to update him on the progress of Cherokee Removal. By this point, the Army had abandoned peaceful negotiations, and now removed the Cherokee from their homes by force. Foster wrote of how he and his men herded the local Cherokee toward the nearest Indian Agency:
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Correspondence of the Eastern Division Pertaining to Cherokee Removal; Nov. 15, 1838 - Dec. 16, 1838
On the evening of the 12th inst. the Regiment halted at this place one hundred miles from the Agency... Capt McCall with the Compy. C & Am. Indians for Guides left yesterday for the Mouth of Deep Creek due East 16 Miles from my camp, he was ordered to examine it to its source in the laurel Mountains; this Creek rises directly North from its Mouth from its Source (Twelve Miles from the Mouth) the Captain turns East, and his movement will combine with that of Lt. Larned, as the latter will turn West, when he has thoroughly examined the O-co-mee-lufly River and all its branches.
Capt. Morris with company H is also on detached service, and will examine the Country bordering on the Tennessee River and its branch the Nan-tay-a-lee River and the Creeks entering with both Streams and which are not laid down upon the Maps.
Lieuts. Prince and Graham with Companies D & K just returned from detached service without having completed their routes being unable to proceed in consequence of the darkness created by the rain & fog which in these mountains turns day into night; these companies will again march in the morning.
Without troubling you with petty details, I will remark, that these five detachments, combined with a Sixth, and Seventh, under Sergeants, all directed by competent Guides, will make a perfect examination of a Circle of thirty five miles around Fort Worth, the place of my present encampment, embracing the Little Tennessee, Tuck-a-segh & Nan-tay-a-lee Rivers, and the numerous creeks which enter into them from all directions.
The... object with which I am charged, the collection of outlying Indians in these mountains... will be easily affected, in as much as they are few in number, and are starving.
The Army also recorded detailed information about the Cherokee families before their forced march. The Muster Roll for one detachment included the name of the officer in charge, and sections to record "Names of the Heads of Families," "Indians," "Slaves," "Date of Enrollment," "Provisions to include," "Rifles," and "Other Members of the Families 'Children' or those under 10 years old."
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Correspondence of the Eastern Division Pertaining to Cherokee Removal; Nov. 15, 1838 - Dec. 16, 1838
The Army also acted as a quasi-governing body in the absence of state and territorial authorities, especially in interactions between settlers and Native groups. In the 1870s, gold was discovered in the Black Hills in Dakota Territory. Similarly to California in the 1840s and the Klondike two decades later, the presence of gold drew the attention of miners, prospectors, and settlers. At the time, the Black Hills were part of Indian Territory, and therefore – in theory – off-limits to settlement and trespass. In September 1874, the Department of the Interior wrote to John Pennington, governor of Dakota Territory:
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"Special Files" of Headquarters, Division of the Missouri; "Citizen Expeditions" to the Black Hills, Feb. 27, 1874 - Oct. 13, 1874
...referring to associations that are forming for the invasion of that part of the Territory embracing the Black Hills notwithstanding existing treaties with Sioux Indians and requesting such suggestions for the guidance and benefit of citizens of the Territory as may be considered appropriate by the Department, and in reply would say... all existing reservations on the east bank of said river shall be, and the same is, set apart for the absolute and undisturbed use and occupation of the Indians herein named, and for such other friendly tribes or individual Indians as from time to time they may be willing with the consult of the United States to admit among them; and the United States now solemnly agrees that no persons except those herein designated and authorized to do so, except such officers, agents and employés of the government as may be authorized to enter upon Indian reservations in the discharged of duties enjoined by the law, shall ever be permitted to pass over settle upon or reside in the Territory described in this article, or in such territory as may be added to this reservation for the use of said Indians... The question of opening up this Country to settlement rests with Congress and until action has been taken by that body, this Department has no discretion in the matter, but is required and will endeavor to prevent any violation of the provisions of the treaty before mentioned. For the reasons herein set forth all applications for permission to visit the Black Hills country will be denied.
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"Special Files" of Headquarters, Division of the Missouri; "Citizen Expeditions" to the Black Hills, Oct. 26, 1874 - March 10, 1875
This interdict had little effect as demonstrated by a letter sent the following March from Brigadier General Alfred Terry, who wrote:
I think that there is no longer room for doubt that as soon as the spring opens a persistent effort will be made by numerous parties of miners to invade the Black Hills. It seems to be established that at least one such party has passed the winter in the Hills and that it has found gold. The reports that have been brought from it are creating considerable excitement on the frontier and it is said that even a corporation with large capital has been formed at Sioux City for the purpose of transporting men and supplies to the supposed gold fields – a corporation – the avowed purpose of which is to violate and defy the law. At the present time when large numbers are out of employment men are easily attracted to any scheme of adventure which promises profit and I am impressed with the belief that unless the most active preventive measures be taken the whole of the hill country will be overrun by miners as soon as the season will permit it to be entered with safety... I need not dwell on the importance of the considerations touching the enforcement of the law because it is law; considerations touching the national good faith and honor. I know that the Lieutenant General feels them quite as strongly as I can; but I submit that it is of the greatest importance that any attempt to defy the law and to trample on the rights secured to the Sioux by the treaty of 1868 should be met in the most rigorous manner at the very outset. If during the coming season the Hills can be absolutely closed to intruders those who would be influenced by not other consideration will become convinced that to attempt to enter them is a profitless undertaking and will hereafter give us little trouble. It may be very difficult to turn such people out if in large numbers they should once succeed in establishing themselves there.
Throughout all these operations, the Army also needed to maintain organization and supplies across significant distances and varied circumstances. A letter from Fort Towson in Indian Territory – modern-day Oklahoma – shows the work needed to maintain even one outpost, and exemplifies the social history inherent in military history:
...I have the Honor to submit to you the following Statement of the quantity of Forage on hand at this Post on the 31st day of August last, and my opinion of the probability of being able at any time during the winter to increase the Same. Should that be deemed necessary... The following is a Statement of the quantity of Subsistence Stores on hand at this Post on the 31st day of August last – viz
The above Statement presents an amount of the Sub Stores on hand in even numbers, omitting the fractional parts of the different kinds mentioned. The following is a statement of the average daily issues of the above Stores for the last three months.
The above Statement of daily issues includes what may be termed the necessary issues viz Issues to 'Troops,' to 'Men in Hospital,' and 'Sales to officers.' If the Sales to Citizens of the last three months were included, it would increase the issues of Pork and Flour to Something more than that stated in the above table. The table of daily issues does not lay claim to factual correctness, but it is believed that it will be found to approximate very nearly to the actual issues.
The Stores generally are in good condition, with the exception of the Pork in a very doubtful state, and no management however careful will, I think, be able to prevent at least one fourth part of it from becoming unfit for issue to Troops.
The quantity of Beef on hand, it is believed, may be increased to any amount. During last summer upward of 25,000 Pounds of it were obtained without difficulty and on tolerably reasonable terms, and if it cannot be obtained at all times, with such ease, and on Such terms, Still it is thought that at all times a Supply may be obtained on terms not very extravagant.
From the foregoing Statement of Stores on hand, and of daily issues, it appears that the present Supply of Pork, Beef, Flour, Beans & Rice, Coffee, Sugar & vinegar will Subsist a number equal to the number of Troops now at this Post for a period of about nine months, that the Supply of Salt at the Same rates is Sufficient for thirteen months, and Soap & Candles for about fifteen months.
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Letters Received by Headquarters, 9th Military Department; Part B-1, Jan. 28, 1849 - March 15, 1849
The full breadth of American Indian Wars cannot be captured in a single article; it spans from 1830 to 1898, and contains detailed accounts of tribal negotiations, army investigations, Native American reservations, reports from the battlefield, land transfers, military encounters on the U.S.-Mexican border, and more.
